When Mortgages Fail to Shield Against Paulian Actions
In March 2025, seven justices of the Polish Supreme Court convened to resolve a doctrinal dispute that had fractured Polish jurisprudence for decades. At issue was whether a debtor could successfully defend against a paulian action – the civil law equivalent of a fraudulent transfer claim – by asserting that the transferred real property was so heavily encumbered by mortgages that creditors could not have obtained satisfaction from it regardless. Resolution III CZP 9/24 definitively resolved one of the most significant controversies in obligations law of the past two decades, fundamentally altering the jurisprudential landscape.
Factual Genesis: A Family Drama with Mortgage Complications
The circumstances giving rise to this landmark decision commenced with a seemingly mundane family financial crisis. B.M., a physician practicing in Wrocław, found herself confronting substantial financial difficulties. Her indebtedness to banking institutions totaled 840,000 złoty, with all her real property subject to mortgage encumbrances. In October 2013, anticipating imminent financial catastrophe, she elected to transfer one property to her son, J.M., via gift transaction.
The transferee initially assumed responsibility for servicing his mother’s mortgage obligations. However, by 2018, he had ceased payments, prompting the bank to initiate enforcement proceedings. Concurrently, other creditors of the transferor, A.S. and K.S., who had previously obtained a judgment exceeding 500,000 złoty against B.M., sought to invoke the paulian action. They contended that the gift had been executed to their detriment as creditors.
J.M.’s defense proved strategically sophisticated: given that the property was encumbered by mortgages exceeding its value, creditors could not have obtained satisfaction even absent the gift transaction. What justification existed, therefore, for nullifying the conveyance?
Jurisprudential Oscillation
The defendant’s argumentation found substantial support in Supreme Court precedent. For nearly two decades, the prevailing doctrine, articulated in a January 31, 2007 decision, held that a debtor could not be deemed to have become insolvent to a greater degree if creditors could not have obtained satisfaction regardless of whether the challenged transaction had occurred. This reasoning persisted through 2017 Supreme Court decisions.
The first doctrinal fissure emerged in a September 2021 ruling, where justices cautioned that mortgage encumbrance alone did not automatically preclude a finding of creditor prejudice. Courts must examine what debt actually remained outstanding. The decisive shift occurred in June 2024, when the Supreme Court radically altered course, holding that assessment of creditor prejudice should not encompass whether particular creditors could realistically obtain satisfaction from the challenged transaction’s subject matter.
This doctrinal evolution reflected judicial recognition that the prevailing interpretation produced absurd consequences and facilitated abuse.
Interpretive Revolution
The March 2025 resolution definitively resolved the dispute, introducing fundamental changes to paulian action jurisprudence. The seven-justice panel unambiguously declared that when a debtor transfers mortgaged real property, creditor prejudice occurs when such transaction creates or increases the excess of liabilities over assets.
The critical innovation involved abandoning individualized analysis of particular creditors in favor of a systemic approach protecting creditors collectively. As the justices astutely observed, Civil Code Article 527 § 2 references “prejudice to creditors” in the plural form advisedly. The legislature focuses on objective debtor insolvency rather than its impact on any particular creditor’s satisfaction prospects.
Terminating the “Mortgage Game”
This new approach eliminated what the Supreme Court termed “mortgage gaming”. Previously, debtors could successfully argue that transferring heavily mortgaged property caused no creditor harm, only to eliminate or satisfy the mortgages after defeating the paulian action. Alternatively, debtors could maintain land registry entries for mortgages securing previously satisfied debts.
The justices emphasized that proving such abuses in paulian proceedings proved extraordinarily difficult, while creditors typically possess superior instruments for assessing their realistic satisfaction prospects compared to courts adjudicating paulian claims.
Practical Ramifications of the Doctrinal Shift
This interpretive transformation carries far-reaching consequences for legal practice. First, it substantially strengthens creditor positions in disputes with debtors attempting to conceal assets from enforcement. Arguments based on property mortgage encumbrance cease functioning as universal defensive shields.
Second, the resolution introduces enhanced legal certainty. Previously, courts engaged in complex prognostications regarding future enforcement proceedings, assessing whether creditors could realistically obtain satisfaction from particular properties. Now, courts need only examine whether asset disposition deteriorated the debtor’s financial position in balance sheet terms.
The resolution’s temporal principle proves equally significant: creditor prejudice must be assessed at trial closure rather than when the challenged transaction occurred. This rule, grounded in Civil Procedure Code Article 316 § 1, may prove decisive when debtor financial circumstances change during litigation.
Interpretive Challenges
While more systematically coherent, this new approach generates practical uncertainties. Judges must now analyze debtor asset portfolios more precisely, potentially requiring expert witnesses and complex valuations. Questions arise regarding borderline situations – whether minimal financial deterioration suffices for paulian action success.
The resolution leaves unresolved various mortgage-related issues. Open questions include evaluating situations where portions of mortgage debts have been satisfied but mortgages remain undeleted from land registries, or joint mortgage scenarios where creditors may choose enforcement targets.
Future Implications
The Supreme Court’s March resolution concludes nearly two decades of interpretive uncertainty regarding one of obligations law’s most significant institutions. It introduces more systematically coherent approaches that complicate abuse while somewhat increasing evidentiary complexity.
The true test of this new approach awaits implementation by lower courts applying these principles to concrete cases. Polish jurisprudential history demonstrates that even seemingly clear Supreme Court resolutions may generate fresh interpretive uncertainties when confronted with life’s diversity.
Conclusion
One conclusion appears certain: the era when mortgage encumbrance could serve as universal protection against paulian actions has definitively ended. This development benefits honest creditors while disadvantaging those seeking to exploit legal complexities to avoid debt satisfaction. The resolution represents a significant victory for systematic legal interpretation over formalistic approaches that, while technically defensible, undermined the paulian action’s protective purposes.
This doctrinal evolution exemplifies how civil law systems adapt through judicial interpretation to address unforeseen practical problems, demonstrating the continued vitality of judge-made law even within codified legal frameworks. The Polish Supreme Court’s willingness to abandon established but problematic precedent in favor of more principled interpretation reflects sophisticated jurisprudential maturity worthy of broader comparative consideration.
Founder and Managing Partner of Skarbiec Law Firm, recognized by Dziennik Gazeta Prawna as one of the best tax advisory firms in Poland (2023, 2024). Legal advisor with 19 years of experience, serving Forbes-listed entrepreneurs and innovative start-ups. One of the most frequently quoted experts on commercial and tax law in the Polish media, regularly publishing in Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza, and Dziennik Gazeta Prawna. Author of the publication “AI Decoding Satoshi Nakamoto. Artificial Intelligence on the Trail of Bitcoin’s Creator” and co-author of the award-winning book “Bezpieczeństwo współczesnej firmy” (Security of a Modern Company). LinkedIn profile: 18 500 followers, 4 million views per year. Awards: 4-time winner of the European Medal, Golden Statuette of the Polish Business Leader, title of “International Tax Planning Law Firm of the Year in Poland.” He specializes in strategic legal consulting, tax planning, and crisis management for business.
